Beyond Normative Frameworks: The Pesantren Model as a Practical Blueprint for Taxonomy of Rehabilitation in Prisons
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.35723/ajie.v10i2.268Keywords:
Islamic Education, islamic rehabilitation, Pesantren in Prison, Rehabilitation TaxonomyAbstract
This study addresses a critical gap in the literature by systematically assessing the practical implementation of Islamic education for inmates, moving beyond the conventional focus on merely documenting Islam in prisons. Drawing on Fousberg and Douglas's rehabilitation taxonomy, which conceptualises the progressive steps of inmate rehabilitation, this research explicitly examines the transition from theoretical classification to concrete implementation. The study shows how the Pesantren model actively operationalises this normative framework into practical moral and social rehabilitation. This study employed a qualitative multiple-case study design conducted in Class II prisons across Kediri, Jombang, Blitar, and Nganjuk, East Java, Indonesia. Using purposive sampling, researchers selected 45 participants, including inmates, prison officers, and Islamic educators. Researchers collected data through semistructured interviews, direct observations, and documentation. Methodological and source triangulation were applied to ensure the trustworthiness of the data, while thematic analysis was utilised to identify and categorise implementation patterns of Islamic education in inmate rehabilitation. The originality of this study lies in offering a novel, replicable framework that transforms abstract rehabilitation concepts into actionable, real-world educational interventions. By doing so, this model contributes to the broader objective of Sustainable Development Goal 4, with the Pesantren model promoting inclusive and equitable quality education within prisons. The study's limitations prominently include its focus on moderate-security prisons and the specific context of Muslim-majority countries. Therefore, researchers need to conduct further studies to evaluate how these findings can apply to high-risk facilities and nations with different religious demographics.
References
[1] Abdekhoda, M., & Ranjbaran, F. (2022). The Holy Quran and Treatment of Mental and Physical Diseases. Pastoral Psychology, 71(4), 423–435. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11089-022-01002-6
[2] Amitay, G., Hawa-Kamel, D., & Ronel, N. (2021). Sufi Non-Doing Offender Rehabilitation: Positive and Peacemaking Criminology in Practice. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 65(8), 916–936. https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X21990782
[3] Ammar, N. H., Weaver, R. R., & Saxon, S. (2004). Muslims in Prison: A Case Study from Ohio State Prisons. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 48(4), 414–428. https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X03261558
[4] Anaraki, N. R. (2022). Islam in Iranian Prisons: Practicing Religious Rituals behind Bars. Religions, 13(10), 905. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel13100905
[5] B. (2024). The Prison Warden of Nganjuk.
[6] Beller, J., Kröger, C., & Hosser, D. (2019). Prädiktoren der Delinquenz bei adoleszenten Muslimen: Religiosität, religiöser Fundamentalismus und wahrgenommene religiöse Diskriminierung. Forensische Psychiatrie, Psychologie, Kriminologie, 13(2), 188–198. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11757-019-00523-w
[7] Berglund, J., Bjursell, C., & Hugo, M. (2025). Research on education in prisons: A scoping review. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 44(4), 436–449. https://doi.org/10.1080/02601370.2025.2465740
[8] Bhutta, M. H., Wormith, J. S., & Zidenberg, A. M. (2019). Assessing the Relationship Between Religiosity and Recidivism Among Adult Probationers in Pakistan. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 63(5), 752–780. https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X18808674
[9] Boy, E., Lelo, A., & Sagiran. (2023). Salat dhuha effect on oxidative stress in elderly women: A randomized controlled trial. Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences, 30(4), 103603. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sjbs.2023.103603
[10] C. (2024). Personality Development Department.
[11] Cahyani, A. D., & Nashori, F. (2024). The Resilience of Muslim Prisoners in Terms of Spirituality and Family Support. Jurnal Psikologi Islami, 10(1). https://jurnal.radenfatah.ac.id/index.php/psikis/article/view/18793
[12] Chloupis, G., & Kontompasi, D. (2025). Examining the relation between education, recidivism & crime prevention. Discover Global Society, 3(1), 18. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44282-025-00153-0
[13] Díaz-Sánchez, J. P. (2024). Drivers of adult educational engagement in Ecuadorian prisons: A gender perspective. International Journal of Educational Research Open, 7, 100386. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedro.2024.100386
[14] F. (2024). Daily Supervisor.
[15] Forsberg, L., & Douglas, T. (2022). What is Criminal Rehabilitation? Criminal Law and Philosophy, 16(1), 103–126. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11572-020-09547-4
[16] Gacek, J., & Asfari, A. (2024). Islamophobia and the Benefits and Challenges for Prison Imams. Islamophobia Studies Journal, 8(2). https://doi.org/10.13169/islastudj.8.2.0246
[17] Hammad, H. (2024). The Role of Islam in the Prevention of Suicide: An Analytical Study of the Reasons Behind Suicide Prevention in Islam. An-Najah University Journal for Research - B (Humanities), 38(11), 2255–2276. https://doi.org/10.35552/0247.38.11.2289
[18] Hapsari, P., Darodjat, & Kusumawinakhyu, T. (2024). The Power of Qur’an to Heal Physical and Mental Illness. Psikis : Jurnal Psikologi Islami, 10(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.19109/psikis.v10i1.19203
[19] Husain, W., Husain, M. A., Ijaz, F., Patrick, J., Khalid, M., Mustafa, A., Noor, A., Wahab, F., Trabelsi, K., Ammar, A., & Jahrami, H. (2025). Measure of Religious Beliefs about Mental Health: Development and Validation Among Christians and Muslims. Pastoral Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11089-025-01218-2
[20] I. (2024). Islamic Educator of Nganjuk Prison.
[21] Irawati, K., Indarwati, F., Haris, F., Lu, J.-Y., & Shih, Y.-H. (2023). Religious Practices and Spiritual Well-Being of Schizophrenia: Muslim Perspective. Psychology Research and Behavior Management, Volume 16, 739–748. https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S402582
[22] J. (2024). Inmate of Jombang Prison.
[23] Jang, S. J., & Johnson, B. R. (2024). Religion and Rehabilitation as Moral Reform: Conceptualization and Preliminary Evidence. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 49(1), 47–73. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-022-09707-3
[24] Jang, S. J., Johnson, B. R., Anderson, M. L., & Booyens, K. (2021). The Effect of Religion on Emotional Well-Being Among Offenders in Correctional Centers of South Africa: Explanations and Gender Differences. Justice Quarterly, 38(6), 1154–1181. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2019.1689286
[25] Jang, S. J., Johnson, B. R., Hays, J., Hallett, M., & Duwe, G. (2018). Existential and Virtuous Effects of Religiosity on Mental Health and Aggressiveness among Offenders. Religions, 9(6), 182. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel9060182
[26] Joon Jang, S., Johnson, B. R., Witvliet, C. V. O., & Evans, C. S. (2023). Religion, Accountability, and the Risk of Aggressive Misconduct Among Prisoners: Preliminary Evidence of Restorative Rehabilitation. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 0306624X231219213. https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X231219213
[27] Kakupa, P., & Mulenga, K. M. (2021). Does correctional education matter? Perspectives of prisoners at a male adult maximum-security prison in Zambia. International Journal of Educational Research Open, 2, 100090. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedro.2021.100090
[28] Kulsoom, B. (2024). Ruqyah: Listening To Quranic Verses, A Disease Treatment Strategy. International Journal of Islamic and Complementary Medicine, 5(1), 56–70. https://doi.org/10.55116/IJICM.V5I1.64
[29] M. (2024). Inmate of Nganjuk Prison.
[30] MB. (2024). Islamic Educator of Jombang Prison.
[31] Mulia, M., Keliat, B. A., & Wardani, I. Y. (2017). Cognitive Behavioral and Family Psychoeducational Therapies for Adolescent Inmates Experiencing Anxiety in a Narcotics Correctional Facility. Comprehensive Child and Adolescent Nursing, 40(sup1), 152–160. https://doi.org/10.1080/24694193.2017.1386984
[32] Murray, J., Coker, J. F., & Elsey, H. (2019). Care farming: Rehabilitation or punishment? A qualitative exploration of the use of care farming within community orders. Health & Place, 58, 102156. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2019.102156
[33] Pedrosa, A., Alm, S., Roxell, L., & Manchado, M. (2024). God moves in mysterious ways: Faith units and their influence on prison governance in Argentina and Sweden. European Journal of Criminology, 21(2), 191–209. https://doi.org/10.1177/14773708231160921
[34] Putri, A. K., Karimulloh, & Kusristanti, C. (2023). Life as Prison Inmates: A Review from Islamic and Psychological Perspectives [Thesis, UIN Salatiga]. https://pps.iainsalatiga.ac.id/wp-content/uploads/2019/12/Life-as-Prison-Inmates-A Review-from-Islamic-and-Psychology-Perspectives.pdf
[35] R. (2024). Inmate of Kediri Prison.
[36] Rashid, R. A., Kamali, K., Habil, M. H., Shaharom, M. H., Seghatoleslam, T., & Looyeh, M. Y. (2014). A mosque-based methadone maintenance treatment strategy: Implementation and pilot results. International Journal of Drug Policy, 25(6), 1071–1075. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2014.07.003
[37] Saged, A. A. G., Mohd Yusoff, M. Y. Z., Abdul Latif, F., Hilmi, S. M., Al-Rahmi, W. M., Al-Samman, A., Alias, N., & Zeki, A. M. (2020). Impact of Quran in Treatment of the Psychological Disorder and Spiritual Illness. Journal of Religion and Health, 59(4), 1824–1837. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-018-0572-8
[38] Si. (2024). Program Manager of Blitar Prison.
[39] Skowroński, B., & Domżalska, A. (2017). Duchowość osób odbywających karę pozbawienia wolności. Resocjalizacja Polska, (13), 87–108. https://doi.org/10.22432/pjsr.2017.13.07
[40] So. (2024). Manager of Blitar Prison.
[41] Solomontos‐Kountouri, O., & Hatzittofi, P. (2016). Brief report: Past, present, emergent and future identities of young inmates. Journal of Adolescence, 47(1), 119–124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2015.10.022
[42] Stansfield, R., & Mowen, T. J. (2019). Religious Involvement, Moral Community and Social Ecology: New Considerations in the Study of Religion and Reentry. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 35(3), 493–516. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10940-018-9394-9
[43] Stansfield, R., Mowen, T. J., O’Connor, T., & Boman, J. H. (2017). The Role of Religious Support in Reentry: Evidence from the SVORI Data. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 54(1), 111–145. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022427816657578
[44] Su. (2024). Head of Islamic Programmes of Jombang Prison.
[45] Sundt, J. L., & Cullen, F. T. (2002). The correctional ideology of prison chaplains. Journal of Criminal Justice, 30(5), 369–385. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0047-2352(02)00152-6
[46] Sy. (2024). The Prison Warden of Kediri.
[47] Talik, E., & Skowroński, B. (2018). The Sense of Quality of Life and Religious Strategies of Coping with Stress in Prison Inmates. Journal of Religion and Health, 57(3), 915–937. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-017-0455-4
[48] U. (2024). Inmate of Nganjuk Prison.
[49] Vacca, J. S. (2004). Correctional Education Association: Educated Prisoners Are Less Likely to Return to Prison. Correctional Education Association, 55(4), 298–300. https://www.jstor.org/stable/23292095
[50] Wang, Y., Liu, J., & Zhou, H. (2025). Describing the evolution of three features of China’s drug policy: Regulation, crime and punishment, and rehabilitation. International Journal of Drug Policy, 140, 104827. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2025.104827
[51] Woodbridge, E., Vanhouche, A.-S., & Lechkar, I. (2025). Islamic practices as powerful tools for coping with prison life: Experiences of men in a Belgian prison. Justice, Opportunities, and Rehabilitation, 64(1), 25–42. https://doi.org/10.1080/10509674.2024.2433283
[52] Z. (2024). Inmate of Nganjuk Prison.
[53] Zafar, M. B., & Abu-Hussin, M. F. (2025). Religiosity and Islamic work ethic: A cross-cultural comparison in majority and non-majority Muslim countries. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 105, 102115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2024.102115
[54] Zahrin, S. N. A., Ibrahim, M. Hj., & Fadzil, F. (2020). The Psychology of Love in Islam and Implications for Education. International Journal of Business and Social Science, 11(12). https://doi.org/10.30845/ijbss.v11n12p8
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Anwar Musaddad, Agus Dwi Santosa, Dariyanto, Moch. Yusron Musoffa, Pratiwi Tri Utami (Author)
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
The AJIE content is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license (CC BY 4.0). Authors retain unrestricted copyright and publishing rights of their articles. Authors grant the Publisher the Affairs Al-Hayat Al-Istiqomah Foundation a license to publish the article and identify itself as the original publisher. Authors also grant any third party the right to use or reuse the article freely as long as its original authors and citation details are identified.
